Chapter 2 - Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

History Chapter 2 – Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution talks about the emergence of socialism in Europe. The Russian Revolution changed society differently and raised the question of economic equality and the well-being of workers and peasants. The chapter also includes topics such as the changes initiated by the new Soviet government, industrialization, and the mechanization of agricultural rights of citizens, etc. Vidyakul CBSE Class 9 History notes Chapter 2 – Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution are one of the best ways to prepare for the exam. Vidyakul CBSE Class 9 History notes are v concisely prepared by subject experts so that students can understand every concept with ease and retain the concepts for a more extended period.

Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives

Liberals wanted a nation that tolerated all religions. They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rules and argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. They wanted a government based on the majority of a country’s population. Conservatives, after the nineteenth century, accepted changes but also believed the past needed to be respected and change should begin slowly.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

Socialism was a well-known body of ideas in the mid-nineteenth century in Europe. Socialists were against private property and saw it as the root of all social ills of the time. They wanted to change it and campaigned for it. Robert Owen (1771-1858) sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA). Louis Blanc (1813-1882) wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) added other ideas to this body of arguments. According to Marx, an industrial society was a ‘capitalist’ who owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists was produced by workers. Capitalism and the rule of private property were overthrown. Marx believed that a communist society was the natural society of the future.

Support for Socialism

By the 1870s, socialist ideas spread through Europe and they formed an international body – namely, the Second International. Associations were formed by workers in Germany and England to fight for better living and working conditions. The Labour Party and Socialist Party were formed by socialists and trade unionists, by 1905.

The Russian Revolution

In the October Revolution of 1917, socialists took over the government in Russia. The fall of the monarchy in February 1917 and the events of October were termed the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

In 1914, Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II and its empire. The Russian Empire included current-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus, stretching to the Pacific and comprising today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The majority of the population was Russian Orthodox Christianity.

Economy and Society (DELETED AS PER 2022-23)

Socialism in Russia

Political parties in Russia was legal before 1914. In 1898, socialists founded the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party which respected Marx’s ideas. Some Russian socialists felt that the Russian peasant custom of dividing land periodically made them natural socialists. Throughout the nineteenth century, socialists were active in the countryside and formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900. The party struggled for peasants’ rights and demanded land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants. The party was divided over the strategy of an organization. According to Vladimir Lenin in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia, the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members. Mensheviks thought that the party should be open to all.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Russia was an autocracy and even at the beginning of the twentieth century, the Tsar was not subject to Parliament. During the Revolution of 1905, Russia along with the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, worked with peasants and workers to demand a constitution. For Russian workers, bad times started from the year 1904 as prices of essential goods rose and their real wages declined by 20 percent. Workers went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages, and an improvement in working conditions. The procession was attacked by the police and the Cossacks when it reached the Winter Palace. The incident, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of events that resulted in the 1905 Revolution. During the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. After 1905, most committees and unions worked unofficially, since they were declared illegal.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances – Germany, Austria, and Turkey (the Central powers) and France, Britain, and Russia (later Italy and Romania). This was the First World War. The war became popular and as it continued, the Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. Support wore thin. The First World War was different on the eastern front and the western front. Between 1914 and 1916 the Russian army lost badly in Germany and Austria. The Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from being able to live off the land. The country was cut off from other suppliers of industrial goods by German control of the Baltic Sea. railway lines began to break down by 1916. For the people in the cities, bread, and flour became scarce. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

Petrograd city is divided among its people. On the right bank of the River Neva workers' quarters and factories were located and on the left bank located fashionable areas such as the Winter Palace and official buildings. Food shortages deeply affected the workers’ quarters. On the right bank, a factory was shut down on February 22. Women also led the way to strikes and is called International Women’s Day. The government imposed a curfew as the fashionable quarters and official buildings were surrounded by workers. Duma was suspended on 25th February. The streets thronged with demonstrators raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours, and democracy. The government called out the cavalry but they refused to fire on the demonstrators. Soldiers and striking workers gathered to form a ‘soviet’ or ‘council’ in the same building where the Duma met and it is termed the Petrograd Soviet. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country. Russia’s future would be decided by a constituent assembly, elected based on universal adult suffrage. Petrograd led the February Revolution which brought down the monarchy in February 1917.

After February

Under the Provisional Government, army officials, landowners, and industrialists were influential. Liberals and socialists worked towards an elected government. Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed. In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile. Lenin demanded three things termed as ‘April Theses’. He wanted a war to end, land to be transferred to the peasants and banks to be nationalized. He also emphasized renaming the Bolshevik Party to the Communist Party. Workers' movement spread throughout the summer. Factory committees formed and trade unions grew in numbers. When the Provisional Government saw its power reduced and Bolshevik influence grew, they decided to take stern measures against the spreading discontent. In the countryside, peasants and their Socialist Revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917.

The Revolution of October 1917

The conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks grew. On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. To organize the seizure, a Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviets under Leon Trotskii. The Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. By nightfall, the city was under the committee’s control and the ministers had surrendered. At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action.

What Changed after October?

Industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917 which meant that the government took over ownership and management. Land was declared as social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). Elections were conducted in November 1917, to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed in the majority. In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly. Despite opposition, in March 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk. The Bolsheviks participated in the elections to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state. After October 1917, this led to experiments in the arts and architecture. But many became disillusioned because of the censorship the Party encouraged.

The Civil War

The Russian Army broke up and their leaders moved to south Russia and organized troops to fight the Bolsheviks (the ‘reds’). During 1918 and 1919, the Russian Empire was controlled by the ‘greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘whites’ (pro-Tsarists) backed by French, American, British, and Japanese troops. These troops and the Bolsheviks fought a civil war. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. In the name of defending socialism, Bolshevik colonists brutally massacred local nationalists. Most non-Russian nationalities were given political autonomy in the Soviet Union (USSR) – the state the Bolsheviks created from the Russian empire in December 1922.

Making a Socialist Society

During the civil war, industries and banks were nationalized. Peasants were permitted to cultivate the land. A centralized planning process was introduced. Officials worked on how the economy will work and set targets for five years. During the first two ‘Plans’ the government fixed all prices to promote industrial growth (1927-1932 and 1933-1938). Centralized planning led to economic growth. But, rapid construction led to poor working conditions. The School system developed, and arrangements were made for factory workers and peasants to enter universities. For women workers, crèches were established in factories for the children. Cheap public health care was provided. Model living quarters were set up for workers.

Stalinism and Collectivisation

The period of the early Planned Economy led to the disaster of the collectivization of agriculture.

By 1927- 1928, the towns in Soviet Russia faced an acute problem with grain supplies. Stalin introduced firm emergency measures. In 1928, party members toured the grain-producing areas, supervising enforced grain collections, and raiding ‘kulaks’ – the name for well-to-do peasants. After 1917, the land had been given over to peasants. From 1929, the Party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz). Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle fell by one-third. The government of Stalin allowed some independent cultivation but treated such cultivators unsympathetically. Despite collectivization, production did not increase immediately, and due to bad harvests of 1930-1933 over 4 million people died. Throughout the country, accusations were made, and by 1939, over 2 million were in prisons or labor camps.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

In many countries, communist parties were formed, like the Communist Party of Great Britain. Non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920). The Bolshevik-founded Comintern (an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties). Before the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had given socialism a global face and world stature. The USSR became a great power and its industries and agriculture developed and the poor were being fed. By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country had declined.

Exercise 

1. What were the social, economic, and political conditions in Russia before 1905?

Answer: Social Condition:

Workers were a divided group. Some had strong links with the villages; others had settled permanently in cities. Workers were divided based on their skills. The division among workers was reflected in their dress and manners too.

Economic Condition:

Most industries were the private property of industrialists. The government supervised large factories. The industry was found in pockets. Many factories were set up in the 1890s when Russia’s railway network was extended, foreign investment in industry increased, coal production doubled, and iron and steel output quadrupled. Most industries were the private property of industrialists.

Political Condition:

Russia was an autocracy. Unlike other European countries, The Tsar was not subject to a Parliament. Liberals in Russia campaigned to end this state of affairs.

Socialist Revolutionary Party Struggled for Peasants’ Rights

1905 was the year when the incident of ‘Bloody Sunday’ took place. 100 workers were killed, and about 300 were wounded. Bloody Sunday started a series of events that became known as the 1905 revolution.

2. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?

Answer: The vast majority of Russia’s population were agriculturists. About 85 percent of the Russian Empire’s population earned their living from Agriculture. This proportion was higher than in most European countries. In France and Germany, the proportion was between 40 percent and 50 percent. Cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs, and Russia was a major exporter of grain.

3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Answer: After 1905, most trade unions and factory committees were declared illegal. There were restrictions on political activity. The Tsar dismissed the first 2 Dumas very quickly because he did not want his authority and powers to be questioned. The third Duma was filled with Conservative politicians. During the 1st world war, the Tsar started taking unilateral decisions without consulting the Duma. While Russian soldiers were retreating from the war, large swathes of agricultural lands were burnt and buildings destroyed by them on the orders of the Tsar. Millions of soldiers also died in the battle. The large majority of the population were peasants, and the land was under the control of a few private people. All these factors led to the rise of revolution and the collapse of Tsar autocracy.

4. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet history.

Answer: Main events of the February Revolution:

In February 1917, there was a shortage of food items in workers' quarters.

On February 23, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank. The workers in fifty factories called a strike and women played a very critical role in these strikes.

On February 25, the government suspended the Duma.

On February 27, Police headquarters were ransacked, and people were demonstrating and raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours, and democracy.

Petrograd Soviet was formed.

The Tsar abdicated in March 1917, bringing an end to the Monarchy.

Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country.

Effects of the February Revolution:

Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.

‘Soviets’ like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common system of election was followed.

The number of trade unions increased.

In Industrial areas, factory committees were formed to question the way industrialists ran their factories.

Soldiers’ committees were formed in the Army.

The Bolsheviks’ influence kept growing, and the provisional government saw its power reducing.

Land committees were formed to handle the redistribution of land, which was a popular demand for peasants and their socialist revolutionary leaders in the countryside.

Main events of the October Revolution:

As the conflict between the provisional government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin feared the Provisional Government would set up a dictatorship. Lenin began discussions for an uprising against the government. Bolshevik supporters in the Army, Soviets, and factories were brought together. On 16th October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A military revolutionary committee was appointed by the Soviets under Leon Trotsky to organize the seizure. The uprising began on 24th October 1917. Military men who were loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-Government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace. In retaliation, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. A ship named Aurora bombed the Winter Palace, and other ships sailed down the Neva and took over various military positions. By the end of the month, the city was under the control of a committee and ministers had resigned. By December, Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.

Effects of the October Revolution.

Industries and banks were nationalized by November 1917; the Government took over ownership and management.

The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.

In the cities, the Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.

Old titles of the aristocracy were banned.

New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.

Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)

Bolsheviks conducted elections for the constituent assembly; however, they failed to attain the majority. The assembly rejected the Bolshevik measures, and Lenin dismissed the assembly.

All Russian Congress of Soviets became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state.

Trade unions were kept under party control. The Secret Police punished anyone who criticized the Bolsheviks. Many young artists and writers continued to support the Party, as it stood for Socialism.

 Many experiments were done in Arts and Architecture. But many were unhappy because of the censorship.

5. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?

Answer:

Industries and banks were nationalized by November 1917; the Government took over ownership and management.

The land was declared as social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.

In the cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.

Old titles of the aristocracy were banned.

New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.

Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)

Bolsheviks conducted elections for the constituent assembly; however, they failed to attain the majority, Assembly rejected the Bolshevik measures, and Lenin dismissed the assembly.

All Russian Congress of Soviets became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state.

Trade unions were kept under party control, and the Secret Police punished anyone who criticized the Bolsheviks. Many young artists and writers continued to support the Party as it stood for Socialism.

 Many experiments were done in Arts and Architecture. But many artists were unhappy because of the censorship.

6. Write a few lines to show what you know about: 

Answer: Kulaks

Wealthy peasants who Stalin believed were hoarding the grains to gain more profit.

When the towns faced an acute shortage of grains, Kulaks were thought to be responsible for it.

Stalin thought it was necessary to eliminate them so that farms could be modernized.

The Duma

In 1905, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and re-elected the second Duma within three months. The Tsar did not want anyone to question his authority or undermine and reduce his powers. The Tsar changed the voting laws and packed the Third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out.

Women workers between 1900 and 1930

Their wages were less than the wages of men.

They formed 31% of the factory workforce.

The Liberals

They considered all religions equal.

They believed only men who have property had the right to vote

They wanted an elected form of Parliamentary governance.

Stalin’s collectivization program.

He began this program in 1929.

He believed this program would help in improving grain supplies.

All peasants were forced to cultivate in collective farms called ‘Kolkhoz’.

On the contrary, this worsened the food supply situation.

Frequently Asked Questions 

How and when did socialism spread in Europe?

Ideas of socialism were well-known by the mid-19th century. The main features of Socialism were: 

1. Collective ownership 

2. Economics, social equality 

3. Economic planning

When did the Russian revolution take place?

The Russian revolution started in 1917 and ended in 1923.

Who was the backbone of the Russian revolution?

The Russian revolution was majorly led by Bolshevik Party leader Vladimir Lenin in November 1917.